Illustration of a young man with diabetic arterial disease experiencing pain while walking variable distances (left). Pain is usually distal in the ankle or foot, because smaller, distal vessels are most commonly affected in diabetic arterial disease (Buerger's Disease). This condition is much more common among heavy smokers (right).

Illustration of a curvature of the spine of a young girl (scoliosis), dorsal view.

Illustration of moderate osteoarthritis of a human knee. Shown are cartilage erosion and cartilage fragments in the synovial fluid.

Illustration of advanced osteoarthritis of a human knee. Shown are an inflammation of the synovial membrane, a synovial cavity with fluid, an inflammation of the joint capsule, bone spurs, and less joint space due to cartilage fragments in the synovial fluid.

Illustration of benign prostatic hypertrophy causing renal insufficiency. Shown are the trabeculated bladder wall and the hydroureters (ureters that have been abnormally distended by urine).

Illustration of knee problems of a young athlete. In a young person's knee, there are metabolically active distal femoral and proximal tibial physeal plates between the metaphyseal and periarticular epiphyseal regions. A supraphysiologic stress applied to the knee may be concentrated at the physeal plates, leading to a growth plate fracture.

Grayscale illustration of a ruptured intervertebral disc. Shown on the left is a side view of the spine, and on the right is a cross section top view detail of a ruptured disc and the pressure of the protruding disc (top) on the spinal nerve (center).

Line art illustration of a sprained (right) and normal (left) ankle. A torn peroneus brevis tendon is shown pulled forward from its normal position.

Illustration of a clogged blood vessel, cutaway cross section. When cholesterol levels are high, atherosclerotic plaque buildup leads to vessel blockage, which may cause heart disease.

Illustration of a Papanicolaou (Pap) smear. Shown are a cervical scrape smear (top), a cervical swab smear (bottom left), and an endocervical aspirator (bottom right). A Pap smear is used to detect cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (dysplasia), cervical cancer, vaginal neoplastic cells, condyloma (human papilloma virus, or HPV), trichomoniasis, and herpes.

Illustration of a colposcopy used to visualize an abnormal cervix (top) and an normal one (bottom). This procedure can identify abnormal areas not grossly apparent, so that suspicious areas can be evaluated earlier, diethylstilbestrol (DES)-exposed patients can be evaluated more fully, and directed biopsies can be performed.

Illustration of a biopsy of the cervix and endocervix. Shown are an external biopsy (left) and an internal biopsy (right). These colposcopy-directed procedures confirm a diagnosis suggested by an abnormal Pap smear and may also be therapeutic with small lesions.

Illustration of a biopsy of the vulva. Shown are a punch biopsy (left) and an excisional biopsy (right). These procedures facilitate the diagnosis of tissues that appear to be abnormal while completely removing lesions.

Illustration of cryosurgery to remove cervical lesions. Shown are the procedure (top) and the cervix after the procedure has been completed (bottom). Cryosurgery cures 90% of precancerous lesions of the cervix.

Illustration of an ultrasonogram (ultrasound) of a pregnant woman. This procedure may detect an ectopic (tubal) pregnancy, fetal anomalies, fetal age, multiple gestations, fetal distress, and fetal position (vertex, breech or transverse). Other uses include the evaluation of ovarian tumors, uterine fibroids, pelvic pain, endometriosis, and pelvic infections.

Illustration of common vaginal infections. Shown are candidiasis (yeast infection) (top left), genital herpes (top right), and trichomoniasis (a sexually transmitted disease caused by Trichomonas vaginalis) (bottom).

Illustration of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). PID occurs when pathogenic organisms migrate upward from the urethra and cervix into the upper genital tract. PID can lead to infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pain. Doctors often prescribe at least two broad-spectrum antibiotics for PID, because it is hard to identify the organisms responsible.

Illustration of endometriosis, a condition in which endometrial-like tissue is found outside the uterus. This may create growths leading to severe pain and infertility. Treatments include hormones (danazol, cyclic progestins) to suppress ovarian function; and surgery to remove extensive endometrial implants, adhesions, and endometriomas.

Conceptual illustration of dysmenorrhea (menstrual pain). Primary dysmenorrhea occurs when prostaglandins synthesized in the uterine wall build up just before menstruation and produce strong contractions leading to pain, cramping, and discomfort. Secondary dysmenorrhea may be caused by endometriosis, pelvic infections, and fibroids.

Illustration of a normal human menstrual cycle. Shown are: 1) the ovarian cycle (top), from left to right: maturation of the follicle, ovulation, and the corpus luteum; 2) the uterine cycle (middle), from left to right: day 1 to 28; and 3) the hormone levels (bottom) of estrogen (top line) and progesterone (bottom line).