Fallopian tube infertility repairs. To repair an occluded (narrowed) fallopian tube, the occlusion is removed and the two remaining sections are reconnected (upper left). To repair a fallopian tube with a club end instead of the normal fimbriae, the tube is cut and a cuff is formed on the new end (right). Without these repairs, ectopic pregnancy may occur.

Illustration of the second lumbar vertebra (L2, top view). Shown are the vertebral body, pedicle, superior articular process, vertebral foramen, spinous process, lamina, mamillary process, and transverse process.

Illustration of lumbar hyperlordosis, an exaggerated curvature of the lumbar spine most often involving the L3, L4, and L5 vertebrae. Shown on the top is an open foramen and a free nerve root allowing flexion; on the bottom is a foramen narrowed by the superior articular process of the inferior vertebra and its compressed root nerve.

Illustration of a herniated (slipped or ruptured) disc, side (top) and top (left) views. Shown is a ruptured disc (with the nucleus coming out of the annulus) pushing into the spinal canal, leading to pressure on the spinal cord and root nerve.

Illustration of spinal stenosis. The top view (left) shows the superior articular process of the inferior vertebra, the inferior articular process of the superior vertebra, and the narrowed spinal canal. A side view (right) shows a damaged intervertebral disc with a loss of disc height and narrowed lumbar vertebrae (top) and a normal disc (bottom).

Illustration of osteoarthritic and spondylitic arthritis of the lumbar spine, showing degeneration of the intervertebral disc between the L3 and L4 vertebrae, spondylitic arthritis between the L4 and L5 vertebrae (in which encroachment on the intervertebral foramen compresses the spinal nerve), and an osteoarthritic facet joint.

Illustration of spinal nerve irritation caused by bone overgrowth in a section of the spine (from top to bottom: L2 to L5 vertebrae). Shown are bone spurs putting pressure on spinal root nerves on the dorsal side of the spine (right side of the illustration).

Illustration of the cushioning function of intervertebral discs. Shown are a normal disc (left) and an abnormal disc (right), whose nucleus has hardened to reduce its cushioning ability. The nucleus is the gelatinous substance inside the cartilaginous annulus that defines the disc's borders. Discs harden and lose cushioning as a result of age and/or injury.

Illustration of ankylosing spondylitis, a condition with the symptoms of lower back pain and stiffness that predominantly affects men, side view. Shown is an ossification of intervertebral discs L1 and L2 (top). L3 through L5 vertebrae have gown together as a result of inflammation (bottom).

Illustration of the fourth cervical vertebra (C4, top view). Shown are the vertebral body, transverse process, sulcus for spinal nerve, transverse foramen, vertebral foramen, spinous process, lamina, pedicle, superior articular facet, costotransverse bar, and anterior tubercle.

Illustration of bursitis of the hip bursa(e), which can cause severe pain. A bursa is a fluid filled sac that facilitates the smooth motion of joints. Shown is bursitis of the trochanteric bursa between the bony prominence of the outside of the hip and the tendon that passes over it (right, blue) and iliopsoas bursitis (center, blue).

Illustration of osteoarthritis of a hip joint, front view. Shown is a narrowing of the joint space and a deformation of the femoral head caused by the destruction of articular cartilage. The pelvis shows osteophytic growths (bone spurs) close to the joint.

Illustration of an opened hip joint, lateral view. Shown are the anterior superior iliac spine, anterior inferior iliac spine, acetabulum, cut ligament of the head of the femur, transverse acetabular ligament, ischial tuberosity, lesser trochanter, greater trochanter, head of femur, articular cartilage, acetabular labrum, and fat in the acetabular fossa.

Illustration of fractures of the femur. Shown are a femoral neck fracture (left) that occurs between the base of the femoral head and the intertrochanteric line and an intertrochanteric fracture (right) that typically occurs between the greater and lesser trochanter).

Illustration of osteonecrosis (bone death) of the femoral head, front view. Shown are the round ligament and artery of the femoral head, medial circumflex femoral artery, and lateral circumflex femoral artery. Blood supply to the femoral head is mainly via the medial circumflex femoral artery; Osteonecrosis can result if this blood supply is reduced.

Illustration of a hip fracture repair. Shown is a fracture of the femoral neck that was repaired with multiple cancellous screws.

Illustration of meniscus tears in the human knee. Shown are a longitudinal tear (top left) that may develop into a bucket handle tear (top right); a radial tear (center left) that may develop into a parrot beak tear (center right); and a horizontal tear (bottom left) that may develop into a flap tear (bottom right).

Illustration of osteoarthritis of the human knee, front view. Shown are a narrowing of the joint space (center), a loose body (top right), and tibial osteophytes (center left and right).

Illustration of a total knee replacement, showing a patellar prosthesis, a cross section of the patella with the patellar replacement cemented in place (floating, left), a femoral condylar prosthesis cemented in place, and a tibial prosthesis cemented in place.

Illustration of the effects of NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs). The top two images depict stomach ulcers due to Cox-1 inhibitors. The bottom images show Cox-2 inhibitors relieving pain in an arthritic hip (left) and knee (right) joint. Cox-2 inhibitors selectively target areas of pain without the gastrointestinal side effects, such as ulcers.